Le Hoang Da
Buddhist Scholar
Venerable Sāriputta instructs the dying brahmin Dhanañjāni, guiding his mind toward rebirth in the peaceful Brahmā realm.
I. Introduction: Teaching and the Path to Liberation
In the Buddhist tradition, the ultimate goal of the path of practice is liberation from suffering and the realization of awakening. Yet the Buddhist scriptures show that the Buddha and his disciples did not always present this path in a single, fixed form. Rather, the Dharma is often expressed in different ways, adjusted according to the circumstances and the capacity of the audience. This flexibility in the presentation of the teaching reflects a pedagogical sensitivity that was later articulated more explicitly in Buddhist traditions through the concept of upāya-kauśalya, commonly translated as “skillful means.”
In Mahāyāna thought, the notion of skillful means occupies a central position. Many Mahāyāna scriptures explain that the diversity of the Buddha’s teachings does not represent mutually contradictory doctrines, but rather provisional methods employed to guide different beings toward awakening. From this perspective, the variety of teachings reflects the Buddha’s compassionate responsiveness to the diverse capacities, aspirations, and levels of understanding among sentient beings. In this way, the doctrine provides a framework for explaining how the Dharma can appear in many forms while still pointing toward a single ultimate goal.
Although the concept of upāya-kauśalya is most fully developed in Mahāyāna texts, the spirit of this pedagogical adaptability can already be observed in earlier layers of Buddhist scripture. Several discourses in the Nikāyas show that the teaching is often presented in ways suited to particular situations. In such cases, the emphasis is not on constructing a systematic doctrine of skillful means, but rather on the practical wisdom involved in adapting the teaching to the needs and capacities of the listener.
This flexibility also suggests that the Buddha’s teaching was not directed toward a single, limited group of people, but was open to many different layers of society. In the scriptures, the recipients of the Dharma may be monastics, but they may also be laypeople living amid the constraints and responsibilities of worldly life. Even those who have committed serious mistakes in the past are still able to enter the path of transformation if they develop remorse and turn toward a virtuous life. In this sense, the flexibility in presenting the teaching reflects an important aspect of the Buddhist spirit of compassion: the path of practice remains open to anyone capable of transforming themselves.
A striking example of this phenomenon can be found in the Dhanañjāni Sutta (Majjhima Nikāya 97), where the Venerable Sāriputta offers guidance to a Brahmin who is approaching death. Because the circumstances of the man’s life made it difficult for him to engage with deeper philosophical teachings, Sāriputta did not immediately present the path to ultimate liberation. Instead, he directed the Brahmin’s mind toward a higher rebirth, specifically the realm of Brahmā. After the Brahmin passed away, the Buddha later remarked that Sāriputta could have guided him even further toward liberation. Nevertheless, the episode clearly illustrates the flexibility in the presentation of the Dharma within early Buddhism.
In later Mahāyāna scriptures, this flexibility is developed into a central interpretive principle. The Lotus Sūtra, especially in the chapter on “Skillful Means,” presents the different teachings of the Buddha as provisional methods intended to lead beings toward the realization of Buddhahood. Similarly, the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra portrays the Bodhisattva ideal as an awakened wisdom capable of creatively transforming the circumstances of worldly life into opportunities for teaching.
By placing these texts side by side, we can observe a continuity in the Buddhist understanding of the relationship between teaching and liberation. This article examines that development through a comparative reading of three sources: the Dhanañjāni Sutta in the Pāli Nikāyas, the chapter on Skillful Means in the Lotus Sūtra, and the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra. Through this comparison, the article seeks to clarify how the idea of skillful means developed from a form of practical pedagogical sensitivity into a significant doctrinal and philosophical theme in Mahāyāna Buddhism.
II. The Dhanañjāni Sutta and Pedagogical Flexibility in Early Buddhism
One notable example of flexibility in the presentation of the Dharma can be found in the Dhanañjāni Sutta (Majjhima Nikāya 97). This discourse recounts an encounter between the Venerable Sāriputta and a Brahmin named Dhanañjāni, who held deep respect for the Buddha but lived within the complexities of political and administrative life, where he was sometimes involved in actions not entirely consistent with Buddhist ethical standards. When he fell gravely ill and realized that he was approaching death, Dhanañjāni became the recipient of a visit from Sāriputta intended to offer spiritual guidance.
In this dialogue, Sāriputta did not present the entire path to liberation in the manner commonly found in many other discourses. Instead of explaining in detail the Noble Eightfold Path or the process leading to the cessation of suffering, he directed the mind of the dying Brahmin toward a more immediate and accessible goal: rebirth in the Brahmā realm (Brahma-loka). Within the Buddhist cosmological framework, this realm is regarded as exalted and pure, and directing one’s mind toward such a destination may help a person in the final moments of life cultivate a state of calm and wholesome mental orientation.
After Dhanañjāni passed away and was believed to have been reborn in the Brahmā world, Sāriputta later reported the entire event to the Buddha. The Buddha did not deny the value of Sāriputta’s instruction, but he remarked that Sāriputta might have guided the Brahmin even further—toward ultimate liberation from the cycle of birth and death. This remark is not presented as a harsh criticism, but rather as an indication that different levels of goals and methods may exist within the process of teaching the Dharma.
From this perspective, the Dhanañjāni Sutta reveals an important aspect of pedagogical practice in early Buddhism: the teaching may be presented at different levels depending on the circumstances of the listener. In the case of Dhanañjāni, his severe illness and proximity to death made it difficult for him to engage with deeper teachings concerning liberation. Consequently, directing his mind toward a wholesome rebirth could be understood as an intermediate step appropriate to the realities of his situation.
Another important element that illuminates the context of this episode is the teaching method frequently mentioned in the Nikāya texts under the name ānupubbī-kathā, or the “gradual discourse.” In this approach, the Dharma is not presented immediately at its most profound level, but is introduced step by step according to the capacity of the listener. In many discourses, the Buddha begins with themes familiar to laypeople, such as generosity (dāna) and ethical conduct (sīla). From there he speaks about the benefits of a virtuous life and the possibility of rebirth in fortunate realms, particularly the heavenly worlds. Only after the listener has developed a certain moral and psychological readiness does the teaching proceed to deeper themes, such as the dangers of sensual attachment, the value of renunciation, and ultimately the path leading to liberation.
This method suggests that the teachings in early Buddhism are often presented at different levels of spiritual aspiration. For monastic disciples, the teaching typically points directly toward liberation from the cycle of rebirth and the realization of Nirvāṇa. For many lay followers, however, the Buddha often emphasized living a morally upright life through the observance of ethical precepts such as the Five Precepts and other wholesome practices. These practices are not the final goal of the Buddhist path, but they play an important role in helping individuals establish a moral foundation, accumulate wholesome karma, and move toward more fortunate states of rebirth.
In this context, Sāriputta’s instruction in the Dhanañjāni Sutta may be understood as a specific application of the principle of gradual instruction. For a person who is nearing death and lacks the conditions to engage with profound teachings on liberation, directing the mind toward a pure realm such as the Brahmā world may serve as an appropriate intermediate step suited to the circumstances.
What is noteworthy here is that this approach does not arise from a fully systematized doctrine of “skillful means,” but rather from a form of practical pedagogical sensitivity. The discourses of the Nikāyas frequently portray the Buddha and his foremost disciples as capable of adjusting the presentation of the Dharma according to the specific circumstances of each individual. In this sense, the Dhanañjāni Sutta provides an early example of how the Dharma can be applied flexibly in order to guide beings through stages appropriate to their capacity of understanding.
When viewed from the perspective of later Buddhist traditions, especially those of the Mahāyāna, such phenomena can be interpreted as early expressions of the principle of skillful means. Yet within the context of early Buddhism, the most striking feature is not the formulation of an abstract doctrinal theory of upāya, but rather the practical wisdom involved in adapting the teaching to the concrete realities of human life.
III. The Chapter on Skillful Means in the Lotus Sūtra and the Doctrine of Upāya
If the Dhanañjāni Sutta in the Nikāyas illustrates pedagogical flexibility in the presentation of the Dharma, the Lotus Sūtra, particularly the chapter on Skillful Means, develops this principle into a systematic doctrine. This chapter plays a foundational role in shaping the concept of upāya-kauśalya (skillful means) within Mahāyāna thought and is often regarded as one of the most important statements on the nature of the Buddhist teaching.
The chapter opens with a famous declaration by the Buddha that the Buddhas appear in the world for a single great purpose: to reveal, illuminate, and guide beings into the Buddha’s knowledge and insight. According to the presentation of the sūtra, the ultimate goal of the Dharma is not merely individual liberation but the full realization of the awakened wisdom of a Buddha. Yet because the capacities of sentient beings differ, the path leading to this goal cannot be presented in a single uniform form.
It is within this context that the concept of skillful means is introduced. The Lotus Sūtra explains that the various teachings delivered by the Buddha throughout his life are not separate or contradictory doctrinal systems. Rather, they are methods appropriately adapted to the different capacities of beings. The diversity of paths presented in Buddhism reflects the diversity of the listeners’ ability to receive and understand the teaching.
One of the central ideas articulated in the chapter on Skillful Means is the doctrine of the One Vehicle (Ekayāna). According to the sūtra, paths such as the Śrāvaka vehicle, the Pratyekabuddha vehicle, and the Bodhisattva vehicle are not ultimately distinct goals. Instead, they are provisional means used to guide beings toward a single final destination: Buddhahood. In this way, the diversity of Buddhist teachings is no longer understood as the division of separate paths but as intermediate stages within a unified process of spiritual guidance.
This idea is illustrated vividly in the famous parable of the Burning House, presented in the following chapter, the Parable Chapter (Chapter 3) of the Lotus Sūtra. In this story, a father sees that his house has caught fire while his children remain inside, absorbed in their play and unaware of the danger. In order to lure them out of the burning house, he promises them different kinds of carts—goat carts, deer carts, and ox carts—each suited to the preferences of the individual children. Once the children have safely escaped, however, the father does not give them the smaller carts he had promised but instead presents them all with a single magnificent and spacious cart.
In the interpretation offered by the Lotus Sūtra, this parable symbolizes the Buddha’s method of teaching. The various carts represent the different paths of practice presented in Buddhism, while the great cart represents the One Vehicle that leads to Buddhahood. The different teachings are not presented because they are separate ultimate goals, but because they function as skillful means to guide beings out of the “burning house” of saṃsāra.
From this perspective, the chapter on Skillful Means and the subsequent parables in the Lotus Sūtra provide a comprehensive explanation for the richness and diversity of the Buddhist tradition. Different teachings are not competing truths but pedagogical methods designed to address the diverse circumstances and capacities of sentient beings. In this sense, skillful means is not merely a pedagogical strategy but also an interpretive principle that helps explain how the Buddhist teaching can take many forms while still pointing toward a single ultimate goal.
When compared with the approach found in the Nikāya discourses, it becomes clear that the Lotus Sūtra significantly expands the meaning of skillful means. Whereas earlier texts often demonstrate flexibility in the presentation of the teaching through specific situations in everyday life, the chapter on Skillful Means elevates this principle into a doctrine with philosophical and even cosmological implications. Through this development, the concept of skillful means becomes a key for understanding the entire history of the Buddha’s teaching.
In the context of this article, therefore, the chapter on Skillful Means in the Lotus Sūtra may be viewed as an important stage in the formation of the doctrine of upāya. If the Dhanañjāni Sutta reveals flexibility in teaching at the level of practical pedagogy, the Lotus Sūtra provides a broader theoretical framework that explains the deeper significance of that flexibility within the overall Buddhist tradition.
IV. The Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra and Skillful Means in the Worldly Life
If the Lotus Sūtra presents skillful means as a principle explaining the diversity of Buddhist teachings, the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra expands the meaning of this principle into another dimension: the practice of skillful means in the life of the Bodhisattva within the world. Rather than focusing on the doctrinal structure of the teaching, this sūtra illustrates how awakened wisdom can flexibly employ the circumstances of everyday life as opportunities for guiding others.
The central figure of the sūtra is the layman Vimalakīrti, a person who lives in society yet is portrayed as possessing profound wisdom and exceptional rhetorical skill. Although he is not a monastic, Vimalakīrti is depicted as a Bodhisattva who has deeply realized the wisdom of liberation. This portrayal creates a distinctive image within Mahāyāna literature: awakened wisdom is not confined to the monastic setting but may manifest within the ordinary activities of social life.
The sūtra describes Vimalakīrti appearing in many different spheres of society. He participates in commercial activities, attends political gatherings, and engages in philosophical debates. Yet the purpose of his presence in these settings is not to pursue worldly advantage but to discover appropriate opportunities for teaching. Within environments that might appear entirely secular, the wisdom of the Bodhisattva is exercised as a form of skillful means. As a result, the spaces of everyday life—markets, public meetings, and intellectual discussions—become places where insight into truth may arise.
One of the most famous episodes in the sūtra is Vimalakīrti’s feigned illness. When news spreads that he has fallen ill, the Buddha encourages his disciples to visit him. Many of them hesitate, however, because in the past they had been challenged by Vimalakīrti, who exposed the limitations of their understanding. Eventually, a profound discussion of the Dharma unfolds from this seemingly ordinary situation. In this context, illness is not merely a physical condition but becomes a means through which deeper reflections on wisdom and liberation are brought forth.
The significance of this episode lies in the way it demonstrates that even the common experiences of human life—such as illness or suffering—can be transformed into opportunities for teaching. Rather than viewing illness as an obstacle, the Vimalakīrti Sūtra presents it as a situation that can be skillfully employed to encourage reflection on the nature of the body, the reality of suffering, and the path to liberation. It is here that the concept of skillful means expands from the domain of doctrinal teaching into the realm of concrete human experience.
Another well-known passage in the sūtra concerns the dialogue on the “Dharma-gate of nonduality.” In this section, various Bodhisattvas present their views on the nature of nonduality, understood as the transcendence of all dualistic oppositions in thought. When it is Vimalakīrti’s turn to speak, however, he remains completely silent. This silence is praised by the Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī as the most profound expression of nondual wisdom. In this context, silence itself becomes a form of skillful means, suggesting that ultimate truth cannot always be adequately expressed through language.
Through episodes such as these, the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra shows that skillful means is not limited to the selection of doctrinal teachings but also includes the way a Bodhisattva lives and acts within the world. Wisdom is manifested not only through direct instruction but also through the ability to recognize opportunities for teaching within the ordinary circumstances of social life.
A central theme throughout the sūtra is the idea that the Bodhisattva does not withdraw from the world in search of awakening. On the contrary, the world itself becomes the field in which wisdom and compassion are exercised with flexibility. This reflects a characteristic Mahāyāna understanding of skillful means: wisdom lies not only in realizing ultimate truth but also in the capacity to apply that truth creatively within the concrete situations of life.
From this perspective, the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra adds an important dimension to the concept of skillful means. If the Dhanañjāni Sutta reveals flexibility in the teaching of the Dharma, and the Lotus Sūtra demonstrates flexibility within the structure of Buddhist doctrine, the Vimalakīrti Sūtra portrays skillful means through the way a Bodhisattva lives and acts within the world. The combination of these three perspectives highlights the multidimensional character of skillful means in the history of Buddhist thought.
V. Three Dimensions of Skillful Means in Buddhist Thought
When the Dhanañjāni Sutta, the chapter on Skillful Means in the Lotus Sūtra, and the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra are placed side by side, it becomes clear that these three texts do not merely address the same idea. Rather, they reflect different stages in the development of the concept of skillful means within the history of Buddhist thought. Each text highlights a distinct aspect of how the Dharma may be applied in order to guide beings toward understanding and liberation.
First, the Dhanañjāni Sutta (MN 97) illustrates skillful means in the form of flexibility in teaching. In this discourse, the Venerable Sāriputta adopts an approach appropriate to the particular circumstances of the listener. Instead of presenting the entire path to liberation in its full form, he directs the mind of Dhanañjāni toward an intermediate goal—rebirth in the Brahmā realm. This approach demonstrates that the Dharma can be presented at different levels depending on the listener’s capacity and situation. In this context, skillful means is not formulated as a doctrinal theory but is expressed through pedagogical sensitivity in the practice of teaching.
In the chapter on Skillful Means of the Lotus Sūtra, this principle of flexibility is expanded into a systematic doctrine. Rather than appearing only in individual teaching situations, skillful means becomes a key for explaining the entire diversity of Buddhist teachings. According to the sūtra, paths such as the Śrāvaka vehicle or the Pratyekabuddha vehicle are not separate final goals but provisional methods used to guide beings toward the One Vehicle, the path leading to Buddhahood. In this context, skillful means functions not only as a pedagogical strategy but also as a philosophical principle that clarifies the relationship between the many forms of Buddhist teaching and a single ultimate goal.
Meanwhile, the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra extends the meaning of skillful means into the sphere of the Bodhisattva’s life and activity in the world. Here, skillful means is found not only in the presentation of doctrine or in the structure of teachings but also in the ability to employ wisdom and compassion in transforming the circumstances of everyday life into opportunities for teaching. The figure of the layman Vimalakīrti, who lives within society yet skillfully uses every situation—including illness or ordinary conversation—as a means to awaken understanding in others, presents a broad interpretation of skillful means. In this case, awakened wisdom is not separated from worldly life but is expressed through the capacity to respond flexibly to the conditions of the world.
Taken together, these three texts suggest that the concept of skillful means may be understood through three complementary dimensions. First, it appears as pedagogical flexibility in the methods of teaching within early Buddhist texts. Second, in Mahāyāna scriptures such as the Lotus Sūtra, it becomes an interpretive principle that explains the diversity of Buddhist teachings. Third, in works such as the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra, skillful means is expanded into a style of action embodied in the Bodhisattva’s engagement with the world.
The integration of these three dimensions clarifies that skillful means is not merely a technical concept within Buddhist doctrine. Rather, it represents a deeper principle concerning the way wisdom and compassion are applied in guiding beings toward awakening. In this sense, the concept reflects an important characteristic of the Buddhist tradition: the Dharma is not a rigid system but a living path capable of adapting to the countless circumstances of human life.
VI. The Philosophical Significance of Skillful Means
The analyses presented in the previous sections suggest that the concept of skillful means (upāya-kauśalya) is not merely a pedagogical strategy but also carries deeper philosophical implications concerning the nature of truth and the path to liberation. When the Dharma can be presented in different forms according to the circumstances and capacities of the listener, an important question arises: what is the relationship between skillful means and truth?
Within the Buddhist tradition, particularly in Mahāyāna thought, skillful means is often understood in close relation to wisdom (prajñā). Wisdom allows one to perceive the true nature of reality, while skillful means refers to the ability to apply that understanding in guiding sentient beings. In other words, skillful means does not replace truth; rather, it serves as the manner in which truth is communicated in ways appropriate to the particular conditions of the listener.
From this perspective, the diversity of Buddhist teachings should not be interpreted as a sign of contradiction or inconsistency. Instead, it reflects an important principle within the Buddhist tradition: ultimate truth may be approached through multiple paths. Different teachings may emphasize different aspects of the path of practice, yet they all point toward the same fundamental aim—the cessation of suffering and the realization of awakening.
Another element inseparable from skillful means is compassion (karuṇā). If wisdom enables the recognition of the nature of reality, compassion motivates the application of that insight for the benefit of others. The union of wisdom and compassion therefore forms the foundation for the use of skillful means in the Bodhisattva path. The Bodhisattva does not merely understand truth but also knows how to present that truth in diverse ways according to the needs and capacities of different beings.
At the same time, the emphasis on flexibility in teaching may sometimes lead to the misunderstanding that skillful means allows any interpretation to be regarded as equally valid. In fact, Buddhist texts consistently stress that skillful means is meaningful only when it is grounded in wisdom and compassion. Without these two elements, the use of skillful means may degenerate into sophistry or distortion of the Dharma. Skillful means should therefore not be understood as a relativization of truth, but rather as a skillful way of bringing truth closer to the concrete circumstances of human life.
From a philosophical standpoint, the concept of skillful means thus reflects a distinctive feature of Buddhist thought: the combination of consistency in the goal of liberation with flexibility in the methods of guidance. The ultimate aim of the Dharma remains the cessation of suffering and the realization of reality, yet the path leading to that goal may be expressed in many different forms. It is precisely this interplay between the constancy of truth and the adaptability of method that has allowed the Buddhist tradition to remain vibrant across a wide range of historical and cultural contexts.
VII. Conclusion: Skillful Means and the Flexibility of the Path to Awakening
The analyses presented in the previous sections suggest that the concept of skillful means (upāya-kauśalya) did not emerge suddenly within the Mahāyāna tradition. Rather, it may be understood as the result of a gradual development within the history of Buddhist thought. When texts such as the Dhanañjāni Sutta, the chapter on Skillful Means in the Lotus Sūtra, and the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra are considered together, they reveal a progressive expansion in the understanding of the relationship between the Dharma, methods of teaching, and the goal of liberation.
In the Dhanañjāni Sutta, the flexibility of the Dharma appears in the form of a practical pedagogical decision. Sāriputta’s instruction to the dying Brahmin demonstrates that the communication of the teaching may be adapted according to the circumstances and capacities of the listener. In this context, flexibility is not articulated as an abstract doctrinal theory but rather as an expression of practical wisdom in guiding others along a wholesome path.
In the chapter on Skillful Means of the Lotus Sūtra, this principle of flexibility is expanded and developed into a systematic doctrine. The various teachings of the Buddha are presented as provisional means intended to guide beings toward a single ultimate goal: the attainment of Buddhahood. Through this approach, the diversity of teachings is no longer understood as the existence of separate paths but as intermediate stages within a unified process of spiritual guidance.
The Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra further extends the meaning of skillful means by situating it within the context of worldly life. The figure of the layman Vimalakīrti illustrates that awakened wisdom is not detached from everyday life but can be exercised flexibly within all spheres of society. In this context, skillful means is not limited to the presentation of teachings but also includes the ability to transform the situations of daily life into opportunities for guiding others toward insight.
When these three texts are viewed within a broader perspective, they reveal that skillful means reflects an important characteristic of the Buddhist tradition: the combination of consistency in the goal of liberation with flexibility in the methods of teaching. Ultimate truth remains unchanged, yet the path leading toward that truth may be presented in many different forms according to the circumstances and capacities of sentient beings.
It is precisely the integration of wisdom (prajñā) and compassion (karuṇā) that has made this principle central to many Buddhist traditions. Wisdom allows one to perceive the nature of reality, while compassion motivates the application of that understanding for the benefit of others. Skillful means may therefore be understood as the concrete expression of wisdom and compassion in action.
In later Buddhist traditions, the diversity of spiritual approaches is often expressed through the symbolic image of the “eighty-four thousand Dharma gates.” Although this number is primarily symbolic, it reflects a profound intuition within the Buddhist tradition: the Dharma may be presented in countless forms in order to respond to the diverse capacities of sentient beings. From this perspective, skillful means is not merely a pedagogical principle or a philosophical doctrine but also a way of expressing the richness and adaptability of the path to awakening throughout the entire Buddhist tradition.
Bibliography
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